Multimodal influences of context, anxiety, and personality on the sense of presence in virtual reality: group trends and individual differences

This exploratory study investigates the effects of context, anxiety, and emotional valence/intensity on the sense of presence in young adults, using a contextual and multimodal anxiety assessment protocol. It also explores the contribution of physiological data to complement self-reported psychological measures. Thirty participants (aged 19-30) take part in four sessions: an initial assessment and three VR exposure sessions (soothing, neutral, anxiety-inducing), each spaced 15 days apart. Environments are individually selected based on participants' subjective experiences to ensure personal relevance. During each session, participants complete psychometric assessments directly in VR (BFI-10, STAI, HADS, ITC-SOPI) and rate their emotions (Likert scales) post-immersion. Cardiac activity is continuously recorded using a portable PPG device (EmbracePlus). Wilcoxon tests reveal significant differences in declared anxiety and perceived emotional valence across contexts, with higher anxiety in the anxious session and greater presence and engagement in the soothing session. Regression analyses show that emotional valence and intensity significantly predict dimensions of presence (spatial presence, natural, engagement), though with low coefficients. STAI is negatively correlated with engagement. No significant session effects correlations with physiological data emerge. However, at the individual level, presence, emotions, anxiety, and HRV show variable links, suggesting interindividual differences. Preliminary analyses also reveal associations between personality and physiology, with neuroticism negatively and extraversion positively related to HRV. The results suggest that the sense of presence is modulated by context and emotional state. These findings argue for a dynamic, user-centered model of presence that integrates emotional states, context, physiological measures and individual variability.